Scotland in the nineteenth century

5. Education

Section 5.6: Science

"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland and the colleges thereof and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner more effectual for the purpose."

A number of witnesses from Scotland gave evidence concerning the teaching of science and technology in institutions of higher education.

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Professor Jenkin, Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Edinburgh (pp. 92-105), said that scientific instruction in Edinburgh was promoted by Edinburgh University, the Watt Institution, the School of Arts and the Museum of Science and Art. The Watt Institution was the first of the mechanics institutes. It had only recently obtained financial assistance from the government. At a total expense of £390 per annum the institution offered scientific instruction to between 700 and 800 men each year. Edinburgh University spent £3,000 per annum on science teaching. Professor Jenkin thought that more technical chairs should be founded, but there was no need for another university in Scotland. He also advocated entrance examinations saying, "men come up knowing nothing, and men of the highest acquirements are forced to teach elementary subjects". The poor standard of science teaching in Scottish elementary schools was much to blame for this.

Andrew Crombie Ramsay, examiner in the Science Department of the Committee of Privy Council on Education (pp. 34-44) claimed that there was no place in Scotland where geology was thoroughly taught.

Lionel Brough, Inspector of Mines (pp. 153-160), reported on the Glasgow Mining School which had failed owing to non-payment of fees and the withdrawal of contributions from colliery proprietors and lessees.

Sir William Thomson, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow (pp. 160-171), gave evidence concerning the faculties, new buildings, staff and their salaries, scholarship and examinations at Glasgow University. He said: "I consider that it is very important indeed that the University of Glasgow should give instruction to all, to the artisan class, and to ladies, as well as to the regular students as at present; but the effective teaching power of the university must be multiplied considerably before that can be done". (para. 2726). Lectures to women had already been instituted at Edinburgh University, and the Andersonian institution offered elementary scientific classes for artizans.

Appendix IX: Students attending science classes during the session 1869-70 (pp. 33-38).

"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament or from endowment belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland and the Colleges thereof and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner more, effectual for the purpose."

The Commissioners reported on the national scientific collections at the British Museum, the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, the Museum of Practical Geology, South Kensington Museum and the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The report also included details of the Museum and Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh, which also received direct aid from the government for maintenance. The Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh consisted of a scientific and industrial collection. The natural history collection formed by the University of Edinburgh, was handed over to the government and lodged in the same building as the industrial museum. It was placed under the general charge of the Professor of Natural History and of the Director of the Industrial Museum. The Commissioners took evidence on the condition and management of the natural history collection.

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Appendix I: Accounts from the various museums in the estimates for the financial year 1873-74, include details of the salaries and wages of staff of the Edinburgh Museum and money spent on purchasing specimens and other expenses (p. 25) and the allowance for the Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh (p. 26).

"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland and the Colleges thereof and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner more effectual for the purpose."

Evidence concerns the national scientific museums and collections and scientific instruction in the universities. The first part of the evidence (pp. 1-58) relates to scientific instruction in the universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, St. Andrews and the Andersonian Institution at Glasgow. Evidence was obtained from professors of anatomy, chemistry, geology, natural philosophy, civil engineering and natural history on lectures and practical instruction, buildings, laboratories and apparatus, examinations, income and expenditure, staff, museums and the training of science teachers.

"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland and the Colleges thereof and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner more effectual for the purpose."

The Commissioners reported on the University of London, the Scottish universities, the University of Dublin and Trinity College, and on Queens University, Belfast.

Under the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858, an inquiry was instituted into financial affairs, the foundation of new professorships, the regulation of courses of study and of examinations for degrees. An additional sum was to be provided for the four Scottish universities not exceeding £10,000.

The Commissioners of 1858 recommended that in addition to attendance at Latin, Greek, mathematics, logic, moral philosophy, natural philosophy and English literature classes, attendance at either chemistry or natural history classes should be required for graduation in the Arts. Only Aberdeen University followed this recommendation.

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The Scottish Universities Commission, 1858 stated that "it is undoubted that a very large number of the students in the Scottish universities are in exceedingly poor circumstances". Many of the students engaged in teaching or other employments during the summer, and many left during the winter session because their funds were exhausted. The resources of the Scottish universities were derived wholly from fees. By the Universities (Scotland) Act, parliament agreed to make a contribution to Scottish universities from public funds.

The report on the University of Edinburgh (pp. 6-14) included details of the scientific curriculum and the system of examination. Edinburgh University could not afford to pay special examiners for the science degree so the professors themselves acted as examiners, for which they received no remuneration. Additional examiners, who were not professors, were appointed for medical examinations and the Commissioners hoped that a similar improvement would be made for scientific examinations. The Commissioners also reported on the number of students matriculated each year since 1867 at Edinburgh University. The Commissioners then reported on the University of Glasgow (pp. 15-21). A chair of civil engineering and mechanics had been instituted in 1840 and endowed by a parliamentary grant. The Department of Engineering Science was established in the university in 1863. Glasgow University lacked funds for the maintenance of museums. The private museums had to be funded by the professors.

The Andersonian Institution (pp. 21-22) had been founded under the will of John Anderson with the object of affording higher education to the working classes of Glasgow. However, the institution possessed no charter or the power of awarding degrees. The Commissioners did not support the suggestion that the institution should be given a charter to allow it to compete on more equal terms with Glasgow University. They thought an increase in the number of degree awarding bodies in Scotland was not desirable.

The Commissioners reported on the scientific chairs, curricula, museum, library, the number of students and the fees they paid at St. Andrews University (pp. 22-26). This university also complained of shortages of assistants and apparatus. The Scottish Universities Commissioners, however, did not recommend a grant for the appointment of assistants at St. Andrews. A connection had been proposed between St. Andrews University and Dundee. It was suggested that classes for artisans should be established in Dundee and a School of Science should be founded there, affiliated to the university.

The Commissioners thought it unreasonable that the professors should be expected to travel backwards and forwards. Additional staff and laboratories would be required and the Commissioners claimed there were no funds available for the purpose. Furthermore, they thought it undesirable to decentralise and separate the different faculties of universities. They recommended an increase in the government grant to enable the university to provide professors with an adequate staff and proper appliances for instruction in science, and to revise the salaries of scientific professors.

Aberdeen University did not give evidence before the Commission, but a statement of funds available for scientific instruction was sent by the Principal (pp. 27-28). Details of the arts curriculums, the museum, the number of students in the 1874-75 session, the fees and bursaries were also supplied.

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The Commissioners made a number of general recommendations concerning the Scottish universities:

1. An account of expenditure of any annual grant made to Scottish universities should be submitted to the government with a view to the exercise of parliamentary control.
2. Two classes should be recognised in future in the Natural Science Honours List.

Appendix II: Papers relating to Scottish universities (pp. 44-45). Extracts from Civil Service estimates for the financial year 1875-1876.

"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland and the Colleges thereof and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner more effectual for the purpose."

The Scottish evidence in this volume was wholly concerned with meteorology with the exception of that taken when a deputation from a committee of the general public appointed to promote the extension and improvement of buildings of the university of Edinburgh was heard (pp. 60-63).

Rev. Robert Main, Radcliffe Observer (pp. 22-31), gave information on the Scottish Meteorological Society, which was established in 1855. The society possessed 93 stations, where observations were made twice a day. For 55 of these stations, reductions were performed at the Royal Observatory at Edinburgh by Professor Piazzi Smyth and reductions for the remaining 38 were made by Alexander Buchan, Secretary of the Society, and the results were published in their quarterly journal.

Robert H. Scott, Director of the Meteorological Office (pp. 1-15), gave evidence concerning the establishment of new meteorological stations in Scotland and submitted a table showing the amounts paid for meteorological establishments and the services in Scotland compared with other portions of the United Kingdom during the financial year 1869-70. He also gave an account of the negotiations between the Meteorological Office and the Scottish Meteorological Society. The government granted £10,000 p.a. to be spent on meteorology and the Scottish Meteorological Society attempted to obtain a portion of this. These negotiations, however, failed.

Alexander Buchan (pp. 38-46) reported on the investigations conducted by the Scottish Meteorological Society into fisheries, storm stations, and the influence of the seasons on human mortality and agriculture. A joint inquiry by the Scottish Meteorological Society and the Fishery Board had been instituted concerning meteorology as it affected fisheries.

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"to make inquiry with regard to scientific instruction and the advancement of science, and to inquire what aid thereto is derived from grants voted by parliament, or from endowments belonging to the several universities in Great Britain and Ireland, and the colleges thereof, and whether such aid could be rendered in a manner effectual for the purpose."

The report related to the relations of government to science and the advancement of scientific research. The inquiry was divided into four parts:

1. The scientific work carried on by Departments of Government.
2. The assistance given by the State towards the promotion of scientific research.
3. The assistance which it is desirable that the State should give towards that object.
4. The central organisation which is best calculated to enable the government to determine its action in all questions affecting science.

The Commissioners received much evidence concerning the financial and scientific administration of scientific investigation, conducted by the government which included astronomical and meteorological observations in Edinburgh. These, together with the Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh, were administered by the Treasury (Office of Works).

The Commissioners also recommended that an observatory for astronomy should be established by the State.

The Commissioners then turned their attention to meteorological observations conducted in the United Kingdom. Besides the sum of £10,000 which was placed on civil service estimates and paid anually to the Meteorological Committee, the government incurred a certain expenditure on account of meteorology at the two national observatories of Greenwich and Edinburgh. The expenditure for the year 1874-75 amounted to £1,221 for Greenwich and £115 for Edinburgh. The Scottish Meteorological Society succeeded in organising a valuable system of observation on the meteorology of Scotland with very limited means.

The Commissioners were in favour of the extension of grants to individuals and thought the grant of £1,000 to the Royal Society should be increased as it contributed enormously to the promotion of research. In a memorial presented to the Commissioners by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, it was recommended that a corresponding grant should be placed at the disposal of that body for the promotion of science in Scotland.

A proposal to establish a Council of Science had been brought before the government by the Royal Society in 1857 upon a report from the Government Grant Committee of that Society. The Commissioners also considered the expediency of appointing a Minister of Science. They decided that the creation of a special ministry dealing with science and education was necessary. The ministry should be aided by the advice of the Council of Science.

Extracts from the estimates for the financial year 1874-75, include details of the geological survey in Scotland, the Edinburgh and the Edinburgh Botanic Garden (p. 49).